Integrative Perspectives on Host–Microbiome–Parasite Interactions in Health and Disease
Tosin Titus Olaniran
Department of Pure and Applied Biology (Microbiology), Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Genomics and Bioinformatics Unit, Helix Biogen Institute, Nigeria.
Oluwagbemisola Elizabeth Elesho
Department of Biology, Georgia State University, USA.
Augusta Imomon
University of Nigeria, Nigeria.
Yetunde Mary Alo
Centre for Genomic Research in Biomedicine (CeGRIB), Mountain Top University, Ogun State, Nigeria.
Onyema Kelechi Roselyn
Department of Anatomy, Babcock University, Ilisan Remo, Ogun State, Nigeria.
Quadri O. Adewuyi
University of Ibadan, Nigeria.
Ruth Avedoya Atibor
Department of Public Health, Institute of International Education, Sechenov University, Russia.
Joy Babalola
Federal Polytechnic Nasarawa, Nigeria.
Yakubu Bitrus
Alpha Higher Institute of Biomedical and Technological Science Douala, Cameroon.
Ijibadejo Margaret Seun
Department of Biochemistry Babcock University, Ilishan Remo, Ogun State, Nigeria.
Possible Okikiola Popoola *
Department of Diagnostic Assay and Medical Artificial Intelligence, Helix Biogen Institute, Nigeria.
*Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Abstract
The human host exists as a dynamic biological system shaped by continuous interactions with resident microbial communities and parasitic organisms. While traditional models of infectious disease have focused on binary host–pathogen relationships, emerging evidence supports a more integrated triangular framework in which host, microbiome, and parasites engage in complex ecological and immunometabolic crosstalk. Within this triadic network, the microbiome establishes foundational immune and metabolic homeostasis through immune education, epithelial barrier maintenance, and colonization resistance. Parasites, in turn, deploy sophisticated immune evasion and immunomodulatory strategies that enable persistence, reshape microbial ecosystems, and recalibrate host immune responses. Concurrently, microbial communities can either restrict or facilitate parasitic colonization through niche competition, metabolite production, and immune priming. Disruption at any vertex of this triangle whether through dysbiosis, infection, or immune imbalance can propagate systemic effects that influence susceptibility to infectious, inflammatory, and metabolic diseases. Chronic parasitic infections may promote immune tolerance and plasticity, potentially mitigate autoimmune pathology while increasing vulnerability to secondary infections. Conversely, microbiome instability can predispose hosts to parasitic invasion and exacerbate immunopathology. These bidirectional and context-dependent interactions highlight the inadequacy of reductionist models and underscore the need for system-level approaches to disease biology. This review synthesizes current evidence on host–microbiome, host–parasite, and microbiome–parasite interactions, emphasizing mechanistic pathways, ecological dynamics, and translational implications. Though the multidirectional host– microbiota-parasite–relationship is still under investigation, evidence increasingly suggests that these interactions have a major influence on host health and disease outcomes.
Keywords: Host–microbiome interactions, parasite–microbiome crosstalk, immune modulation, gut microbiome, parasitic infections, dysbiosis